Image shown as link instead of image

I’m attempting to migrate to this plugin, from the old unsupported version. Now, when viewing the xprofile fields, users see links instead of the images. It seems that something is applying an HTML filter, which is wrapping the image field value in an <href> tag.

It’s strange that it displayed perfectly before the migration, but not after. Nothing else was changed on the site. The fields in the database table appear identical when comparing before/after migration.

Any ideas?

(BTW, the site also uses your BuddyPress Member Types Pro premium plugin)